Constructivist Theory
Goal
"Helping people develop possibilities and recognize that experiences have alternative meanings and interpretations"
(Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 233)
"Helping people develop possibilities and recognize that experiences have alternative meanings and interpretations"
(Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 233)
Constructivist Theory identifies the "concepts of truth, honesty, and authenticity are subjective, based on the individual and his or her perception of the world. Instead of one fixed, agreed-on reality, reality is co-created, constructed by the individual based on what he or she perceives and experiences" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 231). In this theory, clients can be best understood if the context is understood; therefore, background is a very important piece of this kind of therapy.
Five Basic Themes of Constructivism
1. Active agency : People are active participants in shaping their lives. Even though there are things out of our control, our choices and
actions heavily influence our experiences.
Example : Someone making the choice to go to college, to work at a certain company, be friends with certain people,
deciding to drink and drive, deciding to experiment with drugs.
2. Order : People need organization in their lives in order to give meaning to the experiences they have. Too much order leads to
overcontrol whereas too little order leads to loss of balance.
Example : Someone who has a schedule for every minute of his/her day (overcontrol) whereas someone who doesn't have a
schedule nor plan feels lost in his/her day (loss of balance)
3. Self and identity : The relationships that people have with themselves are critical to the quality of life. When our self becomes
fragmented, this can lead to difficulties.
Example : Having good body image and high self-esteem
4. Social-symbolic processes : The first 3 themes are influenced by our social interactions with others and the language, images, and
stories that we use/tell.
Example : What we read, for example, calls to mind different ideas and images based on our experiences
and relationships.
5. Dynamic dialectical development : As people, we seek balance and may be resistant to change. However, our experiences can lead to
organization or disorganization. It's noted that some disorganization is needed in order to be able
to reorganize.
Example : Someone wanting to change something in his/her routine, but struggling because we
are creatures of habit who don't like change and are used to routines.
Mahoney's Constructive psychotherapy (as cited in Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014)
Three Distinctions in Constructivist Thinking
Radical Constructivists : Belief is that everyone's reality is different and is limited by the structure of our brain. It's not possible to know if
reality exists outside of our mind.
Example : The knowledge that what we have in our heads is based off the experiences that we have and creates
our own reality.
Social Constructivists : Belief is that our reality is based off social constructs in which the person was born and raised and peoples'
experiences.
Example : John from Pennsylvania views the world one way and Claire from Syria views it a different way based on
the culture and society from which they were born and raised.
Critical Constructivists : Belief is similar to social constructivists; however, both individual and societal influences help to create reality.
Neimeyer & Raskin's Varities of constructivism in psychotherapy (as cited in Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014)
Example : A person who believes (has individual knowledge) and was brought up in a society and culture (societal
influences) that immigrants are humans too and shouldn't be kicked out of the United States.
Therapeutic Alliance
In Constructivist Theory, the therapeutic alliance is collaborative in nature where the counselor provides a safe place for the client to explore strengths and weaknesses. Counselors provide encouragement and help the client to identify central themes in his/her personal narrative; therefore, the client is the driving force in creating change for his/her life.
Example : A client who comes in for counseling and wants the therapist to tell him exactly what to do in order to get better and how exactly
to get there. However, through the therapeutic relationship, the counselor encourages the client and shows compassion.
Together they work in oder to help the client be the agent of his/her change.
Therapy and Treatment
Treatment can be seen as a three-step process. Initially, the treatment will begin by honing in on what the current problems are and why/how the client is suffering. Next, there is an exploration and identification of recurring patterns. Finally, treatment "moves to an understanding of underlying processes or constructions that perpetuate patterns. This can enable people to develop more rewarding ways of being and coping" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 233).
Example : Current problem --> Drinking too much
Identification --> Depression, loneliness, loss of jobs
Understanding --> Understanding the causes of excessive drinking (for the client) and coping strategies (e.g. exercise) that can
be done instead of drinking
Narrative Therapy
"People are interpretive beings who make meaning of themselves and their world through the language of stories that have become part of themselves, as well as their understanding of those stories" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 235).
Nature of the Stories
Dominant stories : stories that shape who someone is; specifications of personhood being the information within the stories that tells
people how to behave
Example : Suki who self-injures because when her mother was pregnant with her, her mom didn't want her and her dad
beat her mom. Because of this, Suki feels unwanted and views herself as a burden. She also believed that she could only survive if she avoided closeness with others. (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 235).
Lost/untold/marginalized stories : need to be told too and may portray a life where problems have been absent or solved.
Example : "Suki's stepfather told her stories about how she used to make up poems when she was a child
and how much he enjoyed reading her poems" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 235).
Three Types of Stories that Result in Unhappiness/Dysfunction
1. Constricting narratives that have been accepted by culture.
Example : A narrative about gender
2. When a person has a story that is fragmented/disorganized, distress ensues and therefore it becomes difficult to cope with reality
Example : A person who is unable to have goal-oriented behavior.
3. A disruption in the personal narrative can lead to psychological distress.
Example : For whatever reason, a person is no longer able to take part in building his/her life
Richert's Integrating existential and narrative therapy: A theoretical base for eclectic practice (as cited in Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014)
Therapeutic Alliance
Similar to other theories, the client-therapist relationship is collaborative and encouraging. The therapist empowers the client to tell his/her story because he/she is the expert on his/her life. The therapist asks questions and offers new viewpoints so the client can play the main role in his/her treatment.
Strategies
Deconstruction of Stories
Before a story can be well understood, it needs to be broken down and analyzed.
Landscapes of consciousness : the recurring values, feelings, motives, beliefs, and attitudes in one's life.
Bruner's Making stories (as cited in Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014)
Example : In Suki's story, her feelings of hopelessness, sorrow, and pain
Landscapes of action : the behaviors related to events that recur in the person's personal narrative.
Example : In Suki's story, she was withdrawn and ineffectual
Mapping : identifying problems and linking them to the personal narrative to show how the problems come about and how they are
handled.
Example : White's scaffolding conversations map
Externalizing : separating a person from his/her problem
Example : "Anger has power over you"
Payne's Narrative Therapy: An introduction for counselors (as cited in Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014)
Revisioning and Reauthorizing
After the story has been analyzed and understood, the personal narrative is modified. The client is the one who decides to make changes; however, the therapist can offer his/her opinion and different viewpoints. Because of the changes made, the client changes his/her vision of his/her life. With reauthorizing, the client and therapist can have new ways and new understanding of talking about old stories.
Therapeutic Documents
These are the materials that the client and therapist come up with together in order to show accomplishment. These materials can also turn their ideas into more concrete concepts while also helping the client to reflect.
Examples : Awards, letters, and reports
Importance of the Social Network
Because stories have cultural implications, the meanings of the stories are often derived from the person's social interactions. Clients can find support by looking at the network of family and friends to see who has/had the same problem as the client. From them, the client can learn the ways in which others dealt with the same problem. Clients are also encouraged to share his/her modified story and learning with others; this is also known as the bringing-it-back process.
Solution-Focused Brief Therapy
The SFBT therapy does not focus on the past but rather on the present and the future. Where problems come from is of little importance in this theory.
Underlying Assumptions
With SFBT, therapists believe that a person's problems come from his/her view of the world; however, in therapy, the root of the problem is not explored. Therapists believe that people are doing the best they can and to treat a client, the therapist is working to increase the client's optimism and making him/her more aware. When the client see the possibilities of change, it empowers him/her and increases his/her motivation; therefore, creating positive change and helping the client to believe that positive change is possible.
Stages in Treatment
Identifying a solvable complaint
This is the first step because it helps to set goals and promote change. It helps the clients come up with solutions that are readily solvable.
Example : "Remaining strong and taking care of myself when my spouse is abusive"
(Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 242)
Establishing goals
Collaboratively, the client and the therapist work together to create specific, measurable, observable, and concrete goals. There are three types of goals: changing the doing of the situation, changing the viewing of the situation, and accessing resources.
Example : "What will be the first sign of change?" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 243)
The miracle question is a way for the client to envision his/her problem solved and instill hope because the client and therapist can discuss how to make the miracle a reality. The miracle question asks the following questions: "Suppose one night there is a miracle and while you were sleeping the problem that brought you to therapy is solved. How would you know? What would be different? What will you notice different the next morning that will tell you that there has been a miracle? What will your spouse notice?" de Shazer's Putting difference to work (as cited in Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014) .
Example : A woman stating "The first thing I will notice is that my husband has brushed his teeth before returning to bed for some
romance" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 243) because her husband's breath bothered her and he wasn't listening when she
was nagging him about it.
Designing an Intervention
When designing an intervention, a therapist will pull together his/her knowledge of the client and of different strategies to encourage change.
Example : The therapist will ask questions like "What changes have already occurred? What worked in the past when you dealt with
similar situations?" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 244)
Strategic Tasks
Tasks are given to the client to help ensure his/her success. Tasks are written down and the client understands and agrees to the given tasks.
Three types of tasks:
1. Visitors/Window Shoppers : These clients have not communicated clear complaints. Therapists should stick to giving only
compliments because it may be too premature to give a client a task at this point.
de Shazer's Clues: Investigating solutions in brief therapy (as cited in Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014).
2. Complainants : Clients who voice concerns but expect other people to change rather than themselves. Therapist should give tasks
of observation for the client to become more aware of himself/herself in a given situation.
Example : "Between now and our next appointment, I would like you to notice things that are happening in your life
that you want to continue" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 244).
3. Customers who want to find solutions : Therapists will give action tasks to this type of client that will not only empower them but
will also evoke change.
Example : "Neva had many fears, including learning to drive a car and initiating
conversations. Her counselor suggested she ask at least two people to tell her
how they learned to drive. Neva found that people enjoyed talking about this
topic. She not only gained useful information on driving but initiated several
conversations" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 244).
Positive New Behaviors and Changes are Identified and Emphasized
After the client returns from completing his/her task(s), the counselor will use questioning that focuses on change and possibilities. The problem is now external to the client and viewed as "it."
Example : "Who noticed what changes? How did things go differently when you did that?" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 244)
Stabilization
During this stage of treatment, clients are adjusting to the changes and may actually go backwards. However, with promoting further success, this will ensure that the client does not become discouraged.
Termination
When the client feels that he/she has accomplished his/her goals, therapy will terminate
Timing and Finding Solutions
The timing of SFBT is brief because treatment seeks to find solutions rather than answers to problems. On average, clients need three to five sessions with a max of ten. Prochaska & DiClemente's Systems of Psychotherapy: A transtheoretical analysis (as cited in Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014)
With this therapy, breaks in between sessions are OK because it gives the client time to work on strategies, for example.
It is essential to find solutions with SFBT. Therapists needs to find the strategies that will work with their clients to achieve success and avoid all others.
Treatment
Therapeutic Alliance
SFBT is a therapy that requires collaboration between the client and the therapist in order to empower and promote change in the client. The environment also promotes change and both the client and therapist are helping each other. The therapist uses interventions like "active listening, empathy, open-ended questions, explanation, reassurance, and suggestion" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 246).
Strategies
Identifying exceptions to peoples' problems can lead to solutions and therapists believe it's more beneficial to focus on the positive rather than the negative.
Solution Talk : "Clinicians choose their words carefully so that they increase clients' hope and optimism, their sense of control, and their
openness to possibilities and change"
Examples of solution talk: open questions, presuppositional language, normalize problems, focus on coping behavior, notice/
reinforce strengths/successes, create hypothetical situations, concentrate on describing/
changing behavior, use rituals, use words like change/different/possibility, inclusive language, use
reframing/relabeling, match client's vocabulary and style of talking
(Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 247).
Example : Creating hypothetical solutions --> If you weren't feeling angry, what would you be feeling? What would you be
doing?
Make Suggestions : Therapists can use direct, indirect, or implied suggestions.
Examples of making suggestions: recognize indirectness and implied suggestions, solution prescriptions
Example : Solution prescriptions --> "Do one thing different" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 247).
Feminist Therapy
Unlike it sounds, feminist therapy is for both women and men, all people really. "It is designed to combat limiting and harmful influence and to empower all people so they can fight oppression while developing full and rewarding lives" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 248).
Feminist Therapy and Women
Many of the difficulties experienced by women today can be linked to messages that society sends. In addition, women come from many different cultures that have different values but promote independence.
Example : "The increase in eating disorders in females has been caused, at least in part, by messages equating beauty with thinness"
(Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 251).
Feminist Therapy and Men
Because men deal with gender role strain, difficulty with emotions, and issues of anger (as well as others), the feminist models are used to help empower and address issues of bias. There are also societal expectations of men just like there are for women as well as issues of conformity.
Example : A man's efforts to conform to masculine norms and suppress any feminine ones (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 251).
Therapeutic Alliance
Like the constructivist theory, therapists are collaborative with their clients and help to empower them. Therapists are there as a resource to their clients rather as an expert. In addition, therapists "seek to deconstruct barriers to equality and to increase awareness of power structures and differentials in society as a whole and think therapeutic relationship in particular" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 252).
Relational Power
Relational Power deals with relationships and connections. In addition, it was found that moral decisions are not always based off rational judgements.
Relational-cultural therapy (RCT)
RCT deals with differentials of power and privilege. This type of therapy has been found to reduce racism, sexism, and depression, to name a few. In addition, with this therapy, there are discussions about "different forms of unearned advantage (classism, sexism, racism, homophobia) and how the experiences of dominance and privilege suppress authenticity and mutuality in relationships" Hartling & Ly's Relational references: A selected bibliography of research, theory, and applications (as cited in Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014).
Example : Angela, a 40 year old African American mom of two sought counseling after she was diagnosed with cancer. For her therapist,
she chose someone who was around her age and who had been through what Angela is currently going through. Both women
opened up to each other about things and experiences that they shared. Angela shared role expectations for African American
women, influence from her family, her challenges, and the importance she placed on her professional career. She decided to
spend more time with her children rather than at work and came to accept traditional female roles. She learned how to cope
with life's challenges, started exercising, and started a support group. On the other hand, the therapist learned a great deal too
and was able to see the different path she had been brought up on being that she is caucasian (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p.
254).
Strategies
Interventions :
- Analysis of gender roles and power
- Empowerment
- Integrated analysis of oppression
Consciousness-raising : Helps to increase awareness of groups who are typically oppressed in order to make changes clear.
Example : Raising awareness of homosexual repression in order to understand their needs and their goals.
Gender Role Analysis : This strategy looks at the cultural expectations for both men and women. The three parts of this process are:
identifying societal messages, reflection of the pros and cons of societal messages, and planned challenges.
Example : Men should be aggressive and competitive while women are nurturing and empathetic
(Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 254).
Relabeling and Reframing : Problems are viewed from the framework of American society. By looking at the problem from a larger
cultural perspective, it can reduce negative feelings and help to contextualize it in a broader political
perspective.
Example : A woman who had a baby six weeks ago and is panicking every time she thinks about going back to
work. The larger cultural perspective makes her see her problem as a result of living in a society
where economic needs trump family needs and force a mother to go back to work when she may not
be ready. From a broader political view, it makes her think about why society makes a mother choose
between being a mother to her child or paying her bills. (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 255)
Assertiveness Training : Through role-play dialogues, clients learn how to become assertive without becoming aggressive.
Example : "'I'm sure you didn't realize you were leaving a message on my home phone. In the future, I would
prefer you use my cell phone number to remind me of appointment'" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p.
255).
Therapy-demystifying Strategies : The therapist wants the client to feel equal in therapy and wants to help them self-actualize.
Example : Allowing the client to call the therapist by his/her first name and/or providing a 10 page
handout that explains them, their counseling style, fees, goals, etc. (Seligman & Reichenberg,
2014, p. 255)