Action Focused Theory
From top left to bottom right: Ivan Pavlov, John W. Watson, B. F. Skinner, John Dollar, Neal Miller, and Joseph Wolpe
The Importance of Actions in Counseling and Psychotherapy
The advantages of focusing on actions
There are benefits to studying emotions as well as actions because emotions and actions have reciprocal relationships (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 322).
Behaviors as presenting problems
The reason that most people seek counseling is because they are having a problem with their behavior. If the counselor can gear treatment towards that behavior, the client will feel as though the counselor is listening to their needs and it will be advantageous.
Example : Going to counselor for a drinking problem
The accessibility of behaviors
It's easier for people to remember what they did than to remember what they were thinking. This is due to the fact that what we do is part of the structure of our day whereas what we are thinking at a certain instant is hard to remember and pinpoint.
Comfort in discussion of behaviors
People are normally comfortable talking about their behaviors because they are public; however, they have more difficulty talking about their thoughts and emotions because they are private and not overt for the world to see.
Accuracy of information
Similar to having comfort in discussing behaviors, most people when talking about behaviors, can accurately provide information. It's less likely to get accurate information when talking about thoughts or emotions. This accurate sharing of behavioral information is essential to building the therapeutic alliance in counseling.
Ease of measurement
It's easy for people to track and measure their actions. By doing this, it can help to motivate the client and provide hope.
Example : Keeping track of how many glasses of wine a person drinks daily
The availability of behavior change strategies
Because there are many behavior change strategies, counselors are better able to choose a strategy that will work for their client. In addition, these strategies allow the client and counselor to individualize the counseling sessions and the client to achieve success.
The limitations of focusing on actions
The biggest drawback of this approach is that because so much time is spent on actions, thoughts and emotions are not taken into consideration. When thoughts and emotions are not taken into account for treatment, treatment may not have the desired results.
Example : "Lily sought counseling for help with time management; she expressed a wish to have more involvement with her husband and
children. Underlying her presenting problem were feelings of self-doubt and low self-esteem, disappointment with her marriage,
and fear that her husband was having an affair. Lily's marital concerns were exacerbated by feelings of betrayal stemming from
childhood sexual abuse by her father. Neglect of Lily's thoughts, emotions, and background would have done her a disservice
and probably led to treatment that at best would have had limited success" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 324).
These safeguards can reduce the possibility that clinicians focusing on actions will miss important underlying concerns:
- Conducting a comprehensive assessment of client via thorough intake interview and appropriate inventories
- Closely monitor progress of treatment
- Behavior counseling should usually not be used alone
(Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 324)
Important Theoretical Concepts
5 models
Applied behavioral analysis : Derived from B. F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning, this approach looks at the impact of the
environmental events on behavior. It takes a scientific approach and focuses on observable, measurable
behavior.
Neo-behaviorism : Drawing on Pavlov's classical conditioning as well as stimulus-response theories, this focuses on the process of
conditioning or learning responses.
(Wilson, 1995)
Social learning theory : Based on the research of Albert Bandura, this approach seeks to understand the interaction of cognitive,
behavioral, and environmental factors in shaping behavior. Many strategies that clinicians use to enhance self-
efficacy and reduce learned helpless reflect an understanding of the social learning theory.
(Bandura, 2006)
Cognitive-behavioral therapy : Reflected in the work of Meichenbaum, Ellis, and Beck, this approach looks at how cognitions shape
behaviors and emotions. This treatment system makes use of both cognitive and behavioral strategies to
affect change (Wilson, 1995).
Multimodal therapy : Multimodal therapy, developed by Arnold Lazarus, is based on principles of behavior therapy. Multimodel therapy
integrates strategies from a wide range of treatment methodologies into a holistic systematic approach to
assessment and treatment planning.
(Wilson, 1995)
Basic Assumptions Share by Action-Focused Therapies
- Although genetics plays a role, individual differences are derived primarily from different experiences.
- Behavior is learned and acquired largely through modeling, conditioning, and reinforcement.
- Behavior has a purpose.
- Therapy should be based on the scientific method and be systematic, empirical, and experimental. Goals should be stated in
behavioral, specific, and measurable terms, with progress assessed regularly.
- The focus of treatment should generally be on the present. Even if behaviors are long-standing, they are maintained by factors in the
current environment.
- Behaviors must be viewed in the context in which they occur.
- A client's environment can be manipulated to increase appropriate behaviors and decrease harmful behaviors.
- Education - promoting new learning and transfer of learning - is an important aspect of behavior therapy.
- People need to take an active part in their treatment to successfully change their behaviors. Clients have primary responsibility for
defining their goals and completing homework tasks. The treatment plan is formulated collaboratively, with both client and clinician
participating actively in that process.
(Antony & Roemer, 2011)
Therapeutic Relationship
Even though the relationship between client and counselor is collaborative, the counselor focuses on treatment plans, goal setting, and homework assignments to make modifications to harmful behavior. The approach taken is holistic while the counselor not only encourages the client but also values his/her differences.
The Early History of Behavior Therapy: The First Wave
Ivan Pavolv
Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who described classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, by simultaneously presenting an unconditional stimulus (meat, paste) and a conditioned stimulus (sound of a tuning fork), researchers could elicit the dog's salivation using only the conditional stimulus. This is because the dogs learned to associate the sound with the meat. Pavlov also studied extinction. He found that the dog would continue to salivate when they heard the tuning fork, even when there was no meat; however, over time the dog's salivating lessened to the point of extinction.
(Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, 326)
John W. Watson
Watson was an American psychologist who used classical conditioning along with stimulus generalization. He demonstrated that an unconditional stimulus (loud bell), paired with a conditional stimulus (a white rat), could lead a child to emit a conditioned response (startle) in reaction not only to a white rat but also to white cotton and Watson's white hair.
(Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, 326)
B. F. Skinner
Skinner took the concepts that Pavlov and Watson had to create operant reinforcement theory. In operant reinforcement theory, "how often a behavior will be emitted is largely determined by the events that follow the behavior" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, 326). His studies showed how rewards can help to create desired behaviors.
For example : A teacher who constantly gives attention to the student who is acting out. The student is being rewarded (by receiving
attention for the misbehavior rather than the desired behavior.
With operant conditioning, reinforcement schedules are responsible for the new behavior. These schedules can be continuous, fixed ratio, fixed interval, or variable rate.
Positive reinforcement : This type of reinforcement entails giving a reward for a desired behavior. Positive reinforcement will encourage
the person to repeat this behavior and increase the chances of that happening.
Example : student is praised for completing his/her work
Aversive stimulus : Aversive stimulus is the opposite of positive reinforcement. Aversive stimulus is not pleasant and if it follows a
behavior, there is a possibility of decreasing that behavior. This can also be defined as punishment.
Example : smacking a child on his/her bottom
Negative reinforcement : It's important to note that negative reinforcement is not punishment. Instead, it is getting rid of an aversive
stimulus to increase the likelihood of this behavior in the future.
Example : student always gets teachers attention for acting out
(Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 326)
John Dollard and Neal Miller
They identified four important elements in behavior: drive, cue, response, and reinforcement (Miller & Dollard, 1941). The more frequently a stimulus and a response coincide, with the response being rewarded, the stronger is the tendency to emit the response when that stimulus occurs, leading to the development of a habit or habitual response.
Example : "Jamila was the third child in a family of seven children. Both parents worked outside of the home and had little time for positive interactions with their children. Whenever one of the children was sick, however, the parents gave them extra time and attention. Jamila learned that illness was the best way to elicit her parents' attention and so exaggerated even minor physical symptoms for the nurturance that would bring her. She continued this behavior into adulthood, even though it had a deleterious effect on her relationships, her employment, and eventually on her marriage" (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 327).
Counterconditioning could reverse habits. This involves pairing the behavior to be changed with a strong incompatible response to the same cue (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 327).
Example : "Jamila's behavior gradually changed as her employer, friends, and partner became annoyed with her frequent complaints..."
(Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 327)
Joseph Wolpe
Joseph Wolpe is the theorists who developed the concepts of Reciprocal inhibition, Systematic desensitization, Stimulus generalizations, and Stimulus discrimination.
Reciprocal inhibition : eliciting a novel response brings about a decrease in the strength of a concurrent habitual response
Example : A parent who makes a silly face to cheer up a child who is crying after falling off her bike
Systematic desensitization : pairs relaxation with controlled exposure to a feared stimulus.
Example : fear of heights
Stimulus generalizations : when people learn to respond in a particular way to one stimulus, they often behave in that same way when
presented with similar cues
Example : A child who is taught to be respectful of teachers is likely to behave respectfully towards other
authority figures.
Stimulus discrimination : the ability to distinguish among similar cues
Example : to confide in close friends but recognize that it is inappropriate to share many details of our personal
lives at work.
(Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014, p. 328)